During the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus, the ancient writer Strabo described the boundaries of the region of Cappadocia in his 17-volume work Geographika as a vast area extending from the Taurus Mountains in the south to Aksaray in the west, Malatya in the east, and the shores of the Eastern Black Sea in the north. Today, the Cappadocia region covers the provinces of Nevşehir, Aksaray, Niğde, Kayseri, and Kırşehir. The narrower area known as Rocky Cappadocia consists of Uçhisar, Göreme, Avanos, Ürgüp, Derinkuyu, Kaymaklı, Ihlara, and their surrounding areas.

Geological Structure

Mount Erciyes, Mount Hasan, and Mount Göllüdağ in the Cappadocia region were active volcanoes during geological periods. The eruptions of these volcanoes, together with those of numerous other volcanoes, began during the Upper Miocene, approximately 10 million years ago, and continued into more recent geological periods. Lava flows from the volcanoes beneath the Neogene lakes formed a layer of tuff, 100–150 meters thick and varying in hardness, across the plateau, lakes, and river systems. In addition to tuff, this layer contains various geological materials and rock types, including tuffite, ignimbrite tuff, lahar, volcanic ash, clay, sandstone, marl, agglomerate, and basalt. The plateau, shaped by materials ejected from the main volcanoes, was continuously transformed by eruptions from smaller and less powerful volcanoes. Beginning in the Upper Pliocene, rivers and lakes—particularly the Kızılırmak River—eroded this layer of tuff, eventually shaping the region into the landscape we see today.

Formation of the Fairy Chimneys

The erosion of the tuff formations by rainwater and floodwaters flowing down the valley slopes, together with the effects of wind, created the remarkable formations known as fairy chimneys. As floodwaters found their way down steep slopes, they caused harder rocks to crack and break away. The softer materials in the lower sections were then deeply eroded, causing the slopes to gradually retreat. As a result, cone-shaped rock formations remained beneath capstones that protected the structures below from further erosion. The capped fairy chimneys, found particularly around Ürgüp, generally have conical bodies with a block of rock at the top.

Cappadocia Through Historical Periods

Proto-Hittite Period – Assyrian Trade Colonies (3000–1750 BC)

During the Early Bronze Age, Anatolia reached a peak in mining and metalworking. The greatest development, particularly during the later stages of this period, was observed in northern Central Anatolia. Between 2000 and 1750 BC, Assyrian merchants living in northern Mesopotamia established trading colonies in Anatolia, creating the region’s first organized trade network.               The Assyrian merchants also introduced writing to Anatolia for the first time. The cuneiform texts written in Old Assyrian, known as the Cappadocian Tablets, reveal that merchants paid local rulers a 10% road toll along their trade routes, charged 30% interest on loans to indebted local people, and paid a 5% tax on the goods they sold to the Anatolian kingdoms. These tablets also reveal that Assyrian merchants married Anatolian women and that their marriage contracts contained provisions protecting the rights of Anatolian women.

The Hittite Period (1750–1200 BC)

At the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, the Hittites crossed through the Caucasus from Europe and settled in the Cappadocia region. They later integrated with the local population and established an empire. Their language belonged to the Indo-European language family. Hittite remains can be found in almost all the ancient settlement mounds in the Cappadocia region. In addition, during the Hittite Imperial Period, monuments were carved as reliefs into high rocks near strategically important passes and waterways, particularly in the Cappadocia region. These rock monuments make it possible to identify the routes taken by Hittite kings as they traveled toward the southern lands.

The Late Hittite Period (1200–700 BC)

After the Phrygians destroyed almost all of the important cities of Central Anatolia and brought the Hittite Empire to an end, several Late Hittite kingdoms emerged in Central and Southeastern Anatolia. The Late Hittite kingdom in the Cappadocia region was the Kingdom of Tabal, which encompassed parts of present-day Kayseri, Niğde, and Nevşehir.

The Persians and the Kingdom of Cappadocia (585–332 BC)

Following the Cimmerians’ end of Phrygian rule, the Medes and later the Persians appeared in Anatolia. The Persians governed the region through governors known as satraps. The region of Cappadocia was known in Old Persian as Katpatuka, meaning “the land of beautiful horses.” As the Persians followed the Zoroastrian religion and considered fire sacred, they regarded the volcanoes of the region, particularly Mount Erciyes and Mount Hasan, as sacred. The Persians developed the Royal Road, which passed through Cappadocia and connected their capital with the Aegean. Alexander the Great, King of Macedon, defeated the Persian armies in successive battles and brought the great Persian Empire to an end. The Kingdom of Cappadocia, which had remained relatively peaceful until Alexander’s death, struggled to preserve its existence until it became a Roman province in AD 17, fighting against the Macedonians, Pontians, Galatians, and Romans.

The Roman Period (AD 17–395)

In AD 17, Emperor Tiberius incorporated Cappadocia into the Roman Empire, bringing an end to the turmoil in the region. After taking control of the region, the Romans constructed a road westward to provide access to the Aegean. This road was important for both military and commercial purposes. During Roman rule, the region experienced both attacks and migrations from the east. The Romans responded to these newcomers with military units known as legions. During the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus, Cappadocia experienced considerable economic prosperity. Its center, Kayseri, was later attacked by the Sasanian forces coming from Persia. Emperor Gordian III had the city surrounded by defensive walls in response to these attacks. Meanwhile, as Christianity began to spread throughout Anatolia, some of the early Christians began moving from the major cities into rural areas. In the 4th century, when Kayseri had become an important religious center, Christians discovered the rocky landscapes of Göreme and its surroundings. They embraced the worldview of Saint Basil, who was also the Bishop of Caesarea (Kayseri), and lived a monastic life within the rocks.

The Byzantine Period (397–1071)

Following the division of the Roman Empire, Cappadocia remained under the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire. In the early years of the 7th century, intense wars took place in Cappadocia between the Sasanian Empire and the Byzantines. The Sasanians held the region for approximately six to seven years. In 651, after Caliph Uthman brought the Sasanian Empire to an end, the region was subsequently subjected to raids by Arab Umayyad forces.

Long-standing religious conflicts reached their peak when Leo III, influenced by Islam, banned the use of icons. As a result, some Christian monks who supported the veneration of icons began seeking refuge in Cappadocia. The Iconoclast movement lasted for more than a century. Although several churches in Cappadocia were affected by Iconoclasm during this period, those who supported the veneration of icons were able to hide and continue their religious practices in the region.

The Seljuk Period (1071–1299)

The Seljuks, founded by Seljuk Bey, a member of the Oghuz Turks, originated in Central Asia. After adopting Islam in the 10th century, the Seljuks expanded northward and sought to enlarge their territory through continuous conflicts with peoples who had not adopted Islam. The defeat of the Byzantine Emperor Romanos Diogenes by the Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan in 1071 marked the beginning of the decline of Byzantine power and a new era in Anatolia. In 1075, the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum was established. Kayseri was conquered in 1082, bringing Cappadocia under Seljuk rule. As the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum weakened toward the end of the 13th century, various Anatolian principalities emerged in different parts of Anatolia. In 1308, the Mongol-origin Ilkhanids invaded Anatolia, and Kayseri, one of the important cities of the Cappadocia region, was also destroyed and devastated.

The Ottoman Period

The Cappadocia region remained relatively peaceful during the Ottoman period as well. Until the time of Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha, Nevşehir remained a small village belonging to the province of Niğde. At the beginning of the 18th century, particularly during the time of Damat Ibrahim Pasha, extensive development and construction took place in Nevşehir, Gülşehir, Özkonak, Avanos, and Ürgüp. Mosques, religious complexes, and fountains were built. As during the Seljuk period, Christians in the region were treated with tolerance during the Ottoman period.

The First Travelers to Cappadocia

Although Cappadocia had been home to many civilizations, the region was discovered by European travelers in the early 18th century. In 1704, Paul Lucas, who was commissioned by King Louis XIV of France, reported seeing numerous strange, pyramid-shaped dwellings near the Kızılırmak River. He described them as having impressive entrances, stairways, and large windows designed to illuminate all the rooms. Influenced by his imagination, he compared the fairy chimneys to hooded monks and the rock formations on top of them to busts of the Virgin Mary holding the infant Jesus in her arms. He believed that these unusual rock dwellings had been homes of Christian monks. Scientific research and publications on the region began in the late 19th century. In 1907 and 1912, the French researcher and priest Guillaume de Jerphanion conducted studies in Cappadocia, systematically examining the region’s monumental rock-cut churches, rock monasteries, and the wall frescoes within them.

One of the most important rulers in Ottoman history, Suleiman the Magnificent was born on November 6, 1494, in Trabzon, on the Black Sea coast of present-day Türkiye. His father was Sultan Selim I and his mother was Hafsa Sultan. Suleiman spent his early childhood in Trabzon, where he received a comprehensive palace education. He studied Arabic and Persian as well as literature, history, religion, and the arts. As a young prince, he was also introduced to government and administration. He served as governor of Kefe and later Manisa, where he spent several years gaining valuable experience that prepared him for the throne. When his father, Sultan Selim I, died in 1520, Suleiman came to Istanbul and ascended the Ottoman throne on September 30, 1520, at the age of only 26.

The Ruler Europe Called “The Magnificent”

Suleiman’s reign holds a special place not only in Ottoman history but also in European history. Contemporary Europeans referred to him as “The Magnificent” and sometimes as “The Grand Turk.” In the Ottoman world, he eventually became known as Kanûnî, meaning “the Lawgiver.” Interestingly, the title “Kanûnî” was not necessarily the name most commonly used for him during his own lifetime; it became established more strongly in later centuries. Suleiman was not merely a military ruler. During his reign, law, government administration, education, art, architecture, and the charitable foundation system known as the waqf (vakıf) system all developed significantly. He was known for taking the administration of justice seriously and for intervening when officials abused their authority. His reign was marked by an effort to establish a strong and orderly system of government throughout the empire.

From Belgrade and Rhodes to Mohács and Baghdad

Suleiman’s reign was shaped by a series of major military campaigns. In 1521, Belgrade was conquered. The following year, in 1522, the Ottoman army besieged Rhodes, forcing the Knights of St. John to leave the island. One of the most decisive victories came in 1526 at the Battle of Mohács, which dramatically changed the political balance in Hungary and strengthened Ottoman influence in Central Europe. In 1529, the Ottoman army reached the gates of Vienna. In the east, Suleiman’s empire was involved in prolonged conflicts with the Safavid Empire. During his reign, Ottoman control expanded into Iraq, including Baghdad, while Ottoman influence in eastern Anatolia and parts of the Iranian frontier increased. The empire also strengthened its position around Yemen and Basra, helping it compete for important commercial routes leading toward the Indian Ocean. The Ottoman Empire under Suleiman became a vast empire stretching across parts of Europe, Asia, North Africa, and the Mediterranean. At sea, the empire’s power also reached new heights. Great Ottoman naval commanders such as Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha played a crucial role in establishing Ottoman dominance in the Mediterranean.

Suleiman and Hürrem Sultan: A Remarkable Love Story

One of the most fascinating aspects of Suleiman’s personal life was his relationship with Hürrem Sultan. The identity and early life of Hürrem Sultan have been the subject of historical discussion. she was probably from the region around Rohatyn (Rogatin), in present-day Ukraine, and was possibly the daughter of a Catholic priest. She was captured during a Crimean raid while she was still young and was eventually brought into the Ottoman palace. Her original name is often given as Alexandra Lisowska, although historical sources do not provide absolute certainty on every detail of her early life. At the Ottoman palace, she became known as Hürrem or Hürremşah. The word Hürrem means cheerful, joyful, or pleasant. There is no reliable historical evidence proving that one specific person gave her this name. It is generally understood that the name was given to her within the palace environment. Hürrem eventually became one of the most influential women in Suleiman’s life. She was the mother of Şehzade Mehmed (Şehzade = The son of an Ottoman sultan, particularly a male member of the dynasty who was educated and trained for the possibility of ascending to the throne.), Mihrimah Sultan, Şehzade Abdullah, Sultan Selim II, Şehzade Bayezid, and Şehzade Cihangir. Her position also created a serious rivalry with Mahidevran Sultan, the mother of Şehzade Mustafa. Suleiman’s feelings for Hürrem are particularly visible through the poems and letters he wrote to her. Suleiman himself was a poet and wrote under the pen name Muhibbî. His poems reveal a deeply emotional side of the powerful sultan. In them, he expressed his love, longing, affection, and devotion to Hürrem. Hürrem Sultan died in Istanbul on April 15, 1558. She was buried in her own mausoleum beside the Süleymaniye Mosque. Her tomb was built by the great Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan.

 Mimar Sinan and the Istanbul of Suleiman

Perhaps one of the most enduring legacies of Suleiman’s reign can be found not on the battlefield, but in the architecture of Istanbul. The greatest architect of the Ottoman classical period was undoubtedly Mimar Sinan. Sinan’s relationship with Suleiman was much more than that of a ruler and an architect. Suleiman gave Sinan the opportunity to create monumental works that reflected the power, sophistication, and cultural confidence of the Ottoman Empire.

Among Sinan’s most important works during Suleiman’s reign were:

* Şehzade Mosque

* Süleymaniye Mosque and Complex

* Mihrimah Sultan Mosque in Üsküdar

* Kırkçeşme Waterworks

* Büyükçekmece Bridge

* Numerous mosques, schools, bridges, baths, water systems, and other public buildings

It is important to clarify one common misconception: Mimar Sinan did not invent modern concrete or cement.

His greatness lies in his extraordinary ability to combine existing construction materials, structural techniques, domes, arches, water engineering, and spatial design at an exceptional level. His architectural achievements pushed Ottoman architecture to one of its highest points.

The Süleymaniye Mosque: Suleiman’s Signature in Istanbul

Construction of the Süleymaniye Mosque and Complex began in 1550 and was completed in 1557. The complex was far more than a mosque. It included religious schools, a hospital, an almshouse, a hadith school, and other social and educational institutions. It functioned as a major center of education, religion, social assistance, and public life. Today, the Süleymaniye Complex remains one of the defining monuments of Istanbul’s Ottoman skyline.

When we look at Süleymaniye today, we can see three remarkable figures connected to the same story: Suleiman the Magnificent, Hürrem Sultan, and Mimar Sinan. Suleiman’s own tomb is also located here.

The Personality of Suleiman

Suleiman cannot easily be described with a single word. Historical sources portray him as a ruler who valued education, poetry, art, law, discipline, and good administration. He was also interested in poetry, hunting, and craftsmanship. He wrote poetry throughout his life under the name Muhibbî. His poetry reveals a much more emotional and sensitive side than the image of the powerful conqueror might suggest. As for his physical appearance, Ottoman miniatures and accounts by contemporary Western observers provide some clues. He was often described as tall, strong, dignified, and imposing. However, we do not have reliable modern measurements of his exact height or weight, and artistic representations of rulers were often idealized. Therefore, descriptions of his physical appearance should be treated with some caution.

His Final Campaign and Death

Suleiman’s final military campaign took place in 1566, when he marched toward Szigetvár (Sigetvar). He was 71 years old and his health had significantly deteriorated. Despite his condition, he insisted on remaining with his army. Suleiman died during the siege on the night of September 6–7, 1566. One of the most remarkable details surrounding his death is that it was kept secret from the Ottoman army. His commanders feared that news of the sultan’s death would destroy the army’s morale. The fortress of Szigetvár was conquered shortly after his death, but Suleiman never witnessed the victory. His body was preserved and secretly transported back toward Istanbul with the Ottoman army. After arriving in Istanbul, a funeral prayer was performed and Suleiman was buried in his mausoleum beside the Süleymaniye Mosque.

What Happened to Suleiman’s Heart?

There is a fascinating and controversial story concerning Suleiman’s heart and internal organs. According to a widespread tradition, his heart and some of his internal organs were buried near Szigetvár, at the place where he died. However, this should not be presented as an established historical fact. Therefore, it would be historically inaccurate to state with certainty:

“Suleiman’s heart is buried in Hungary.” What we can state with certainty is that Suleiman’s body was brought back to Istanbul and buried in his mausoleum within the Süleymaniye Complex. His mausoleum was constructed by Mimar Sinan shortly after his death. The octagonal tomb is considered one of the outstanding examples of classical Ottoman architecture.

The Legacy of a Great Sultan

Suleiman’s 46-year reign is widely regarded as one of the most powerful and influential periods in Ottoman history. Under his rule, the Ottoman Empire reached from the heart of Europe to North Africa, from Iraq and the eastern Mediterranean to the Arabian Peninsula and the Red Sea. Yet Suleiman’s greatest legacy cannot be measured only by the territories he conquered. His era produced magnificent examples of architecture, education, law, literature, art, urban development, and charitable foundations. Today, Istanbul still preserves countless monuments from his reign, including the Süleymaniye Mosque, the Şehzade Complex, the Haseki Complex, Hürrem Sultan’s charitable institutions, bridges, water systems, and numerous other Ottoman works. Hürrem Sultan herself commissioned important charitable buildings, including the Haseki Complex, which included a mosque, school, soup kitchen, and hospital. Suleiman therefore left behind more than a growing empire. As a ruler, he expanded the borders of the Ottoman state. As a statesman, he strengthened its laws and institutions. As a poet, he expressed his deepest emotions through verse. And as a patron of art and architecture, he helped create an Istanbul whose monuments still define the city today. Perhaps that is the best way to understand Suleiman the Magnificent. He was not simply a conqueror. He was the ruler of an empire at the height of its political power—and one of the central figures of the Ottoman age that shaped Istanbul and much of the world around it.

The person you are referring to is Constantine I, also known as Constantine the Great, one of the most important emperors in the history of Rome and one of the key figures in the history of Istanbul. Constantine was born around 272 or 273 AD in Naissus, in the Balkans, near present-day Niš in Serbia. His father was Constantius Chlorus, and his mother was Helena, who later became an important figure in Christian history. Constantine became emperor in 306 AD and, after a series of civil wars, became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire in 324 AD. Two developments during his reign would have an enormous impact on world history: his transformation of Christianity’s position within the Roman Empire and his transformation of Byzantium into a new imperial capital.

From Byzantium to the New Rome

Constantine did not build Istanbul from nothing. Long before his reign, an ancient Greek settlement known as Byzantion (Byzantium) had existed on the site of modern Istanbul. After defeating his rivals and becoming the sole emperor, Constantine began transforming Byzantium on a massive scale. He recognized the city’s extraordinary strategic position. It stood at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, controlled the Bosphorus, and connected the Black Sea with the Mediterranean world. In 330 AD, Constantine officially inaugurated the newly rebuilt city as a major imperial capital. The city became known as Constantinople, meaning “the City of Constantine.” It was also associated with the idea of “Nova Roma,” or “New Rome,” because Constantine intended it to serve as a new center of the Roman Empire. It is important, however, not to say that the city was renamed from Nova Roma to Constantinople only after Constantine’s death. The name Constantinople was already being used during Constantine’s lifetime. “New Rome” described the city’s role as a new Roman imperial center rather than simply being an earlier official name that was later replaced.

How Did Constantine Transform Istanbul?

Constantine’s achievement was much more than changing the name of an old city. He transformed the relatively small and ancient city of Byzantium into a magnificent imperial capital modeled in many ways on Rome. The city was expanded, new defensive walls were constructed, and enormous public buildings, ceremonial avenues, squares, palaces, churches, and monuments were built. Constantine wanted the city to possess the grandeur expected of the capital of a vast empire.

Forums and Monumental Buildings

One of the most important public spaces created during his reign was the Forum of Constantine. At its center stood a monumental marble column topped by a statue of Constantine. The remains of this column survive today and are known as Çemberlitaş. Constantine also greatly expanded the Hippodrome, which became one of the most important centers of public life in Constantinople. The Hippodrome was much more than a place for chariot races. It was a place where the emperor appeared before the people, major ceremonies were held, and political and social life unfolded. Constantine also brought monuments, statues, and architectural elements from different parts of the Roman world to decorate his new capital.

Constantine and Christianity

Constantine is one of the most important figures in the history of Christianity. Before his reign, Christians in the Roman Empire had experienced periods of severe persecution. One of the most serious periods of persecution occurred under Emperor Diocletian. Constantine dramatically changed this situation.

The Edict of Milan – 313 AD

In 313 AD, Constantine and Licinius issued what became known as the Edict of Milan. The edict allowed Christians to practice their faith openly and helped end official persecution of Christianity. Property that had previously been confiscated from Christian communities was also to be returned. This was a major turning point in Christian history. However, there is an important distinction: Constantine did not make Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire later, particularly under Emperor Theodosius I in the late fourth century. Constantine’s importance lies instead in the fact that he transformed Christianity from a persecuted religion into one that could openly develop under imperial protection.

 The Council of Nicaea – 325 AD

Another major achievement of Constantine was the First Council of Nicaea, held in 325 AD. The council brought together bishops from different parts of the Roman Empire to address serious theological disputes within Christianity, particularly the controversy surrounding Arianism. Constantine played an important role in bringing the bishops together because he wanted to restore religious unity within the empire. The council produced the foundation of what would become known as the Nicene Creed, one of the most important statements of Christian belief. For this reason, Constantine’s importance to Christianity goes far beyond simply becoming a Christian. He used imperial authority to support the organization of the Church and to promote unity within the Christian world.

Constantine’s Christian Legacy in Constantinople

Constantine wanted his new capital to have not only a Roman identity but also an increasingly important Christian identity. During his reign, important churches were built in the city, including Hagia Irene (Aya İrini) and the Church of the Holy Apostles. The Church of the Holy Apostles became particularly significant because Constantine himself was eventually buried there. It is important to clarify that the magnificent Hagia Sophia seen in Istanbul today was not built by Constantine. The present structure was built centuries later under Emperor Justinian I, in the sixth century. Nevertheless, the development of Constantinople as a Christian imperial capital began during Constantine’s reign and created the foundation upon which later emperors, including Justinian, would build.

Helena, Constantine’s Mother

Constantine’s mother, Helena, also holds an important place in Christian history. She is traditionally associated with journeys to the Holy Land and with the development of important Christian sites in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. During Constantine’s reign, major Christian buildings such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem were constructed or significantly developed. Helena later became a revered figure in Christianity and is known as Saint Helena.

The Death of Constantine

Toward the end of his life, Constantine was preparing for a military campaign against the Persian Empire. However, he became seriously ill and died on May 22, 337 AD, near Nicomedia, not far from Constantinople. He was approximately 64 or 65 years old. One of the most significant details about his death is that Constantine was baptized as a Christian shortly before his death. His body was brought to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, the church he had commissioned. In this way, the emperor who had transformed the city into a new imperial capital was buried in the city that would carry his name for centuries.

Constantine’s Greatest Legacy in Istanbul

Perhaps the most important thing to understand about Constantine is this: Constantine did not simply rebuild Istanbul; he changed the role of the city in world history. Before Constantine, Byzantium was an ancient and strategically important settlement. After Constantine, it became one of the most important cities in the world.

It became:

* The imperial capital of the Roman Empire.

* A strategic center between Europe and Asia.

* One of the most important cities of the Christian world.

* A magnificent metropolis filled with palaces, churches, forums, monuments, and public buildings.

* The center of what would later be known as the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire for almost a thousand years.

* The historical and architectural foundation upon which the later Ottoman Istanbul would be built.

For this reason, Constantine’s transformation of Byzantium in the fourth century was one of the decisive moments in the history of Istanbul. The city he transformed would survive the fall of the Western Roman Empire, become the heart of the Eastern Roman Empire, and eventually become the capital of the Ottoman Empire after the Ottoman conquest of 1453. Constantine therefore stands at one of the most important crossroads in Istanbul’s history: the moment when an ancient city on the Bosphorus was transformed into a world capital.

Basilica Cistern (Yerebatan Cistern)

The famous Byzantine emperor Justinian I had the Basilica Cistern built in 532 to supply water to the Great Palace. With its architectural grandeur, it creates the impression of a palace above the viewer, which is why it is popularly known as the “Sunken Palace.” Since it was constructed on the site of the former Basilica of Illus during the Roman period, it is also referred to as the “Basilica Cistern” in foreign sources. The cistern has a capacity of approximately 80 million cubic meters of water, which was brought from the Belgrad Forest, about 25 kilometers away, through a series of aqueducts and tunnels.This 1,500-year-old structure covers an area of 140 by 170 meters. It consists of a total of 336 columns arranged in 28 rows of 12 columns each. Most of the columns are 12 meters high and feature capitals in the Corinthian and Doric styles. At the far end of the cistern, you can see two carved Gorgon heads used as column bases.

According to Greek mythology, the Gorgons were three female monsters with snake hair who turned anyone who looked at them into stone. Among them, only Medusa is widely known. Perseus borrowed the shield of Athena, placed a mirror in front of it, and used it to face Medusa. Seeing her own reflection, Medusa shared the same fate as her victims.

The restoration of the Basilica Cistern began in 1985 and it was opened to the public in 1988. During the Byzantine period, the cistern—also known as the “Sunken Palace”—was used to store water for the Great Palace and other buildings on the First Hill. After the conquest of Istanbul, it supplied water to the gardens of Topkapı Palace.

The Cistern of Philoxenos – ( The Binbirdirek Cistern )

The Binbirdirek Cistern was restored between 1995 and 2002 and opened to visitors. The cistern measures 64 by 56.4 meters, covering an area of 3,610 square meters. This means it is only about one-third the size of the Basilica Cistern, yet it is still the second largest covered cistern in the city.

It is believed to have been commissioned in the second quarter of the 4th century by the Roman senator Philoxenus, who came to the city with Constantine the Great. However, there is evidence suggesting that some parts date back to the 5th or 6th century.

In the 19th century, the cistern was used as a thread workshop, and in more recent times, it served as a storage facility. The original height of the structure—from the floor to the tops of its small brick domes with a herringbone pattern—was about 19 meters. The columns consist of two stacked sections connected by interesting stone joints.

The cistern originally contained a total of 224 double columns arranged in 16 rows of 14 columns each, although 12 of them were walled off shortly after the construction was completed. The column capitals supporting the arches are generally plain, except for some that bear the monograms of stonemasons.

The name “Binbirdirek” is thought to derive either from the phrase “bindirme direk” (overlapping columns), referring to the way the columns are stacked, or from the word “binbir” (one thousand and one), which in Turkish is also used to express abundance.

Theodosius Cistern – ( Şerefiye Cistern )

The Şerefiye Cistern (also known as the Theodosius Cistern) is one of the most impressive underground structures in Istanbul and has a deep-rooted history dating back to the Byzantine period. The cistern was built between 428 and 443 AD during the reign of Theodosius II. Its purpose was to meet the water needs of Constantinople, particularly by storing water for the imperial palace and its surroundings. It continued to be used during the Ottoman period for a long time, although it gradually lost its importance. Architectural features: It contains 32 marble columns, The columns are approximately 9 meters high, It is a large underground structure with a rectangular plan.

Over time, the cistern was buried underground and forgotten. In the modern era, it was brought back to light through scientific excavations and restoration efforts, rather than being “discovered” by a single individual. After extensive restoration work, the cistern was opened to visitors as a museum in 2018.

Gülhane Park Cistern

The cistern in Gülhane Park has a rectangular plan measuring around 17 x 12 meters with a depth of 7 meters. It has 12 columns (four rows with three columns) supporting 20 vaults. The columns have 12 unfinished Corinthian capitals, simple imposts, and bases made of Proconnesian marble. There are masons’ marks on some bases, capitals, and columns. Its walls, which are almost 2 meters thick, are lined with hydraulic mortar. The corners are beveled to strengthen the structure from internal water pressure. Traces of a discharge channel are on its northwest wall, while a terracotta inflow pipe is in one of the vaults. The remains of the superstructure can be seen above the cistern. While its function is uncertain, it could have been connected to a monastery or perhaps a bath. The cistern has been dated between the fifth and seventh centuries.

The cistern was discovered by chance in 1913 during work to turn the outer garden of Topkapı Palace into a public park that began the previous year. It was cleaned and documented in the same year. Five arched openings were made in two of the original walls and a metal staircase was added inside to make the cistern accessible to the public. Several capitals, which were discovered during the excavations at the site, are now on display above the cistern. One Ionic impost capital was added to an additional wall on the northwest wall.

There was a small zoo in Gülhane Park in the second half of the twentieth century, during which time the cistern functioned as its aquarium. It was restored in 2003-2004 and excavations were made above the cistern. In the following years, the cistern was closed to the public. Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (İBB) opened to the public as Gülhane Sanat art exhibition in 2023.

Gülhane Park

Gülhane Park was once part of the outer gardens of the palace. This area corresponded to the lower part of the ancient Greek city of Byzantion, following the same line as the city walls and the outer walls of Topkapı Palace that you see on the left. The acropolis of Byzantion was located where Topkapı Palace stands today.Covering an area of 100,000 square meters, Gülhane Park offers visitors some of the most beautiful photo opportunities, especially during the tulip festival held in April.

On the left side of the park is the Museum of the History of Science and Technology in Islam, which opened in 2008. The project belongs to the Turkish historian of science Fuat Sezgin, and the museum presents the history of Islamic science and technology between the 9th and 16th centuries.

Within the park, on a hill overlooking Sarayburnu, stands the striking Column of the Goths, notable for its 15-meter height and Corinthian-style capital. According to the Byzantine historian Nicephorus Gregoras, a statue of Byzas, the founder of Byzantium, once stood on top of the column. The inscription on its base, which can barely be read, says “to the fortune that returned with the defeat of the Goths.” This creates some confusion, and it is not certain whether the column was erected for Claudius II Gothicus or for Constantine the Great, both of whom defeated the Goths.

Leaving the park and crossing the street, we walk toward Sarayburnu, where there is a large bronze statue of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. This monument, created in 1926 by the Austrian sculptor Heinrich Krippel, is historically significant as it was the first statue of a Turkish figure erected in the country.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was the visionary leader who led the Turkish nation to victory in the Turkish War of Independence and founded the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923. He introduced groundbreaking reforms to transform society, strongly supported women’s rights by granting them equal political participation, and devoted his life to building a modern, independent, and united nation.

When we travel somewhere new and beautiful, we usually want to leave a part of ourselves there, or take something back with us. Sometimes it is to remember the place, sometimes to use it, or to give gifts to our loved ones when we return—simply so they know they were remembered and to see their beautiful smiles. Time can be merciless; sometimes we forget where we were and with whom we shared the moments we enjoyed the most. Yet we always remember the feeling—the same beautiful emotions remain. Maybe years later, while sitting together with your loved ones, a blue evil eye bead you once bought from a street market in Istanbul, Türkiye, during your journey to explore the world will remind you of those memories. Or perhaps one day, when ordering dessert at a restaurant, Turkish delight or Turkish baklava will come to your mind—some flavors are truly unforgettable. As you wander through the streets of the Grand Bazaar, home to nearly 4,000 shops, you may get lost—but we will help you find your way. Let us explore together the colorful, vibrant local products that reflect our culture, our people, our handcrafts, and our history. Let’s walk, see, discover, and truly get to know them together.

Asian Side Shopping Mall Tour

Istanbul’s Asian side is home to some of the city’s largest and most modern shopping malls. Since these malls are located in different districts and are relatively far from each other, traveling by private vehicle is the most comfortable and practical way to explore them. With this tour, guests can visit several major shopping centers in a single day without the stress of public transportation or city traffic. The malls offer a wide selection of international and Turkish brands, luxury boutiques, restaurants, cafés, and entertainment areas. Whether you are looking for world-famous fashion brands, local Turkish designers, or simply a relaxing shopping experience, the Asian Side Mall Tour allows you to discover almost everything you need in one enjoyable day.

Bosphorus cruise

Welcome to the beautiful Bosphorus, one of the most unique waterways in the world. As we sail between Europe and Asia, you are traveling along a natural strait that has connected continents, cultures, and empires for thousands of years.Along the shores you will see elegant Ottoman waterfront mansions, historic fortresses, green hills, and magnificent palaces that once belonged to sultans and royal families. The Bosphorus has always been one of the most strategic and beautiful locations in the world, linking the Black Sea and the Mediterranean through the Sea of Marmara.While enjoying the fresh sea breeze, take in the stunning views of the skyline, historic architecture, and the peaceful blue waters that make this city truly unforgettable.

According to the Byzantines, Istanbul is the necklace of the world. The city reflects its mood on its walls and then, with the elegance of an artist, paints the sky again with those same colors. The green areas surrounding it and many of the magnificent old houses visually enchant those who visit.The Bosphorus is a magnificent waterway that separates the European and Asian shores. It stretches for about 30 km, from Sarayburnu to Anadolu Kavağı at the exit of the Black Sea. Connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea through the Sea of Marmara, the Istanbul Bosphorus has held great strategic importance throughout history. For this reason, Constantine the Great chose Istanbul as the new capital of the Roman Empire, although this decision also brought many challenges to the city.The first modern bridge was the Bosphorus Bridge, built in 1973 (now called the 15 July Martyrs Bridge). The second bridge, located 5 km to the north, is the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, built in 1988. The third and most recent bridge is the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge, constructed in 2016 on the Black Sea side of Istanbul.The Bosphorus has a maximum width of 3,600 meters (at the entrance of the Black Sea) and a minimum width of 698 meters (between Anadolu Hisarı and Rumeli Hisarı). Its maximum depth is 110 meters (between Bebek and Kandilli) and its minimum depth is 30 meters.

According to ancient Greek mythology, the Bosphorus takes its name from Io, a priestess beloved by Zeus, the king of the gods. Fearing the jealousy and anger of his wife Hera, Zeus turned Io into a cow to hide her. However, Hera realized the situation and sent a gadfly to torment the poor Io. Trying to escape the fly, Io wandered across the world. Eventually, she crossed from Asia to Europe, and this passage gave the strait its name: Bosphorus, meaning “cow crossing” or “ox-ford.” The story ends happily when Io reaches Egypt, where Zeus turns her back into a human.

Taksim Square and Istiklal Street

The Istiklal Street walking tour offers an excellent opportunity to discover Istanbul’s cultural diversity, architectural heritage, and vibrant social life. The tour starts at the heart of modern Istanbul, Taksim Square, continues along the famous Istiklal Street, and ends at the historic Galata Tower.

Taksim Square

Our tour begins at Taksim Square, one of the most famous gathering points in Istanbul. The name “Taksim” comes from the Ottoman period when a water distribution structure called a “maksem” was located here. Water brought from the Belgrad Forest was collected and distributed to different parts of the city. At the center of the square stands the Taksim Republic Monument, an important symbol of the foundation of the Turkish Republic. The monument was unveiled in 1928 and designed by the Italian sculptor Pietro Canonica. It features Mustafa Kemal Atatürk along with figures representing the Turkish War of Independence.

Istiklal Street

Starting from Taksim Square, Istiklal Avenue stretches approximately 1.4 kilometers and is completely pedestrianized. During the Ottoman period, it was known as “Cadde-i Kebir,” meaning the Grand Avenue, and Europeans referred to it as “Grand Rue de Pera.”In the 19th century, this street became one of the most important commercial and social centers of Istanbul. Merchants from England, France, and the Netherlands settled in this area, turning Beyoğlu into one of the most cosmopolitan districts of the city. One of the iconic symbols of the street is the Istiklal Avenue Nostalgic Tram, which today operates as a nostalgic attraction and adds to the historic atmosphere of the avenue.During the tour, visitors can enjoy traditional Turkish flavors such as: Turkish coffee, Baklava and Turkish delight, Stuffed mussels (midye dolma), Turkish street food, Traditional Turkish mezes, Shopping. Istiklal Street is also one of Istanbul’s most popular shopping areas. The avenue is lined with souvenir shops, bookstores, art galleries, and antique stores.

Galatasaray Square and Galatasaray High School

Located at the center of Istiklal Street is Galatasaray Square, one of the main meeting points along the avenue. The square is home to the historic Galatasaray High School, founded in the 15th century and known as one of the most prestigious educational institutions in Turkey.

Çiçek Pasajı (Flower Passage)

One of the most famous historic arcades on Istiklal Street is Çiçek Pasajı. In the 19th century, this site was home to the well-known Naum Theatre, an important cultural venue in the city. The theater was destroyed during the Great Beyoğlu Fire of 1870. Later, a new building with shops and apartments was constructed here by the Greek banker Hristaki Zografos. Over time, many flower shops opened inside the passage, which led to its popular name “Flower Passage.” Today it is known for its lively restaurants and traditional taverns serving Turkish cuisine.

Galata Tower

Our tour concludes at one of the most iconic landmarks of Istanbul, the Galata Tower. Walking around its charming streets, visitors discover art galleries, boutique shops, and vibrant cafés that capture the essence of Istanbul’s culture. A visit to Galata Tower is not just about the views—it’s a full experience. Don’t miss the chance to try a slice of delicious cheesecake at one of the nearby cafés, the perfect treat while enjoying the lively atmosphere of the area. Whether you’re interested in history, photography, or simply soaking in the city vibes, Galata Tower and its surroundings make for an unforgettable stop on any Istanbul tour.

In the 14th century by the Genoese, the tower was originally part of the defensive walls of Galata. Throughout history it has served as a watchtower, fire tower, and lighthouse. Today it offers visitors one of the most breathtaking panoramic views of Istanbul. The origin of the name “Galata” is uncertain. One view suggests it derives from the Greek word gala (milk), meaning “milkmen” (Galatas). Another theory links it to the Genoese dialect of Italian word Caladdo, meaning “slope.”The tower’s height is 62.5 meters from ground to the tip of the cone, and 70 meters including the flagpole. It has 14 windows, each opening onto a different view.

Spice Bazaar

The Spice Bazaar (Mısır Çarşısı) is one of Istanbul’s most famous covered markets. It was built as part of the Valide Sultan Complex, whose construction was restarted by Hatice Turhan Sultan. The architect Mustafa Ağa, who completed the nearby Yeni Mosque, designed the bazaar in an L-shaped plan.The bazaar survived two major fires in 1691 and 1940, and after restoration by the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality in 1940, it took its current form. It is called the “Spice Bazaar” because much of its initial capital came from taxes collected in Cairo. Historically, it was also known as the “Bazaar of the Spice Merchants” due to the wide variety of spices and medicinal herbs sold there. Today, it still offers an incredible selection of spices, herbs, sweets, and teas, making it a must-visit for visitors seeking both history and flavor. Its colorful stalls, historic architecture, and lively atmosphere make it the perfect spot to explore, shop, and take memorable photos. A visit here is a sensory experience you won’t want to miss on your Istanbul tour.