During the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus, the ancient writer Strabo described the boundaries of the region of Cappadocia in his 17-volume work Geographika as a vast area extending from the Taurus Mountains in the south to Aksaray in the west, Malatya in the east, and the shores of the Eastern Black Sea in the north. Today, the Cappadocia region covers the provinces of Nevşehir, Aksaray, Niğde, Kayseri, and Kırşehir. The narrower area known as Rocky Cappadocia consists of Uçhisar, Göreme, Avanos, Ürgüp, Derinkuyu, Kaymaklı, Ihlara, and their surrounding areas.

Geological Structure

Mount Erciyes, Mount Hasan, and Mount Göllüdağ in the Cappadocia region were active volcanoes during geological periods. The eruptions of these volcanoes, together with those of numerous other volcanoes, began during the Upper Miocene, approximately 10 million years ago, and continued into more recent geological periods. Lava flows from the volcanoes beneath the Neogene lakes formed a layer of tuff, 100–150 meters thick and varying in hardness, across the plateau, lakes, and river systems. In addition to tuff, this layer contains various geological materials and rock types, including tuffite, ignimbrite tuff, lahar, volcanic ash, clay, sandstone, marl, agglomerate, and basalt. The plateau, shaped by materials ejected from the main volcanoes, was continuously transformed by eruptions from smaller and less powerful volcanoes. Beginning in the Upper Pliocene, rivers and lakes—particularly the Kızılırmak River—eroded this layer of tuff, eventually shaping the region into the landscape we see today.

Formation of the Fairy Chimneys

The erosion of the tuff formations by rainwater and floodwaters flowing down the valley slopes, together with the effects of wind, created the remarkable formations known as fairy chimneys. As floodwaters found their way down steep slopes, they caused harder rocks to crack and break away. The softer materials in the lower sections were then deeply eroded, causing the slopes to gradually retreat. As a result, cone-shaped rock formations remained beneath capstones that protected the structures below from further erosion. The capped fairy chimneys, found particularly around Ürgüp, generally have conical bodies with a block of rock at the top.

Cappadocia Through Historical Periods

Proto-Hittite Period – Assyrian Trade Colonies (3000–1750 BC)

During the Early Bronze Age, Anatolia reached a peak in mining and metalworking. The greatest development, particularly during the later stages of this period, was observed in northern Central Anatolia. Between 2000 and 1750 BC, Assyrian merchants living in northern Mesopotamia established trading colonies in Anatolia, creating the region’s first organized trade network.               The Assyrian merchants also introduced writing to Anatolia for the first time. The cuneiform texts written in Old Assyrian, known as the Cappadocian Tablets, reveal that merchants paid local rulers a 10% road toll along their trade routes, charged 30% interest on loans to indebted local people, and paid a 5% tax on the goods they sold to the Anatolian kingdoms. These tablets also reveal that Assyrian merchants married Anatolian women and that their marriage contracts contained provisions protecting the rights of Anatolian women.

The Hittite Period (1750–1200 BC)

At the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, the Hittites crossed through the Caucasus from Europe and settled in the Cappadocia region. They later integrated with the local population and established an empire. Their language belonged to the Indo-European language family. Hittite remains can be found in almost all the ancient settlement mounds in the Cappadocia region. In addition, during the Hittite Imperial Period, monuments were carved as reliefs into high rocks near strategically important passes and waterways, particularly in the Cappadocia region. These rock monuments make it possible to identify the routes taken by Hittite kings as they traveled toward the southern lands.

The Late Hittite Period (1200–700 BC)

After the Phrygians destroyed almost all of the important cities of Central Anatolia and brought the Hittite Empire to an end, several Late Hittite kingdoms emerged in Central and Southeastern Anatolia. The Late Hittite kingdom in the Cappadocia region was the Kingdom of Tabal, which encompassed parts of present-day Kayseri, Niğde, and Nevşehir.

The Persians and the Kingdom of Cappadocia (585–332 BC)

Following the Cimmerians’ end of Phrygian rule, the Medes and later the Persians appeared in Anatolia. The Persians governed the region through governors known as satraps. The region of Cappadocia was known in Old Persian as Katpatuka, meaning “the land of beautiful horses.” As the Persians followed the Zoroastrian religion and considered fire sacred, they regarded the volcanoes of the region, particularly Mount Erciyes and Mount Hasan, as sacred. The Persians developed the Royal Road, which passed through Cappadocia and connected their capital with the Aegean. Alexander the Great, King of Macedon, defeated the Persian armies in successive battles and brought the great Persian Empire to an end. The Kingdom of Cappadocia, which had remained relatively peaceful until Alexander’s death, struggled to preserve its existence until it became a Roman province in AD 17, fighting against the Macedonians, Pontians, Galatians, and Romans.

The Roman Period (AD 17–395)

In AD 17, Emperor Tiberius incorporated Cappadocia into the Roman Empire, bringing an end to the turmoil in the region. After taking control of the region, the Romans constructed a road westward to provide access to the Aegean. This road was important for both military and commercial purposes. During Roman rule, the region experienced both attacks and migrations from the east. The Romans responded to these newcomers with military units known as legions. During the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus, Cappadocia experienced considerable economic prosperity. Its center, Kayseri, was later attacked by the Sasanian forces coming from Persia. Emperor Gordian III had the city surrounded by defensive walls in response to these attacks. Meanwhile, as Christianity began to spread throughout Anatolia, some of the early Christians began moving from the major cities into rural areas. In the 4th century, when Kayseri had become an important religious center, Christians discovered the rocky landscapes of Göreme and its surroundings. They embraced the worldview of Saint Basil, who was also the Bishop of Caesarea (Kayseri), and lived a monastic life within the rocks.

The Byzantine Period (397–1071)

Following the division of the Roman Empire, Cappadocia remained under the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire. In the early years of the 7th century, intense wars took place in Cappadocia between the Sasanian Empire and the Byzantines. The Sasanians held the region for approximately six to seven years. In 651, after Caliph Uthman brought the Sasanian Empire to an end, the region was subsequently subjected to raids by Arab Umayyad forces.

Long-standing religious conflicts reached their peak when Leo III, influenced by Islam, banned the use of icons. As a result, some Christian monks who supported the veneration of icons began seeking refuge in Cappadocia. The Iconoclast movement lasted for more than a century. Although several churches in Cappadocia were affected by Iconoclasm during this period, those who supported the veneration of icons were able to hide and continue their religious practices in the region.

The Seljuk Period (1071–1299)

The Seljuks, founded by Seljuk Bey, a member of the Oghuz Turks, originated in Central Asia. After adopting Islam in the 10th century, the Seljuks expanded northward and sought to enlarge their territory through continuous conflicts with peoples who had not adopted Islam. The defeat of the Byzantine Emperor Romanos Diogenes by the Seljuk Sultan Alp Arslan in 1071 marked the beginning of the decline of Byzantine power and a new era in Anatolia. In 1075, the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum was established. Kayseri was conquered in 1082, bringing Cappadocia under Seljuk rule. As the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum weakened toward the end of the 13th century, various Anatolian principalities emerged in different parts of Anatolia. In 1308, the Mongol-origin Ilkhanids invaded Anatolia, and Kayseri, one of the important cities of the Cappadocia region, was also destroyed and devastated.

The Ottoman Period

The Cappadocia region remained relatively peaceful during the Ottoman period as well. Until the time of Nevşehirli Damat Ibrahim Pasha, Nevşehir remained a small village belonging to the province of Niğde. At the beginning of the 18th century, particularly during the time of Damat Ibrahim Pasha, extensive development and construction took place in Nevşehir, Gülşehir, Özkonak, Avanos, and Ürgüp. Mosques, religious complexes, and fountains were built. As during the Seljuk period, Christians in the region were treated with tolerance during the Ottoman period.

The First Travelers to Cappadocia

Although Cappadocia had been home to many civilizations, the region was discovered by European travelers in the early 18th century. In 1704, Paul Lucas, who was commissioned by King Louis XIV of France, reported seeing numerous strange, pyramid-shaped dwellings near the Kızılırmak River. He described them as having impressive entrances, stairways, and large windows designed to illuminate all the rooms. Influenced by his imagination, he compared the fairy chimneys to hooded monks and the rock formations on top of them to busts of the Virgin Mary holding the infant Jesus in her arms. He believed that these unusual rock dwellings had been homes of Christian monks. Scientific research and publications on the region began in the late 19th century. In 1907 and 1912, the French researcher and priest Guillaume de Jerphanion conducted studies in Cappadocia, systematically examining the region’s monumental rock-cut churches, rock monasteries, and the wall frescoes within them.

One of the most important rulers in Ottoman history, Suleiman the Magnificent was born on November 6, 1494, in Trabzon, on the Black Sea coast of present-day Türkiye. His father was Sultan Selim I and his mother was Hafsa Sultan. Suleiman spent his early childhood in Trabzon, where he received a comprehensive palace education. He studied Arabic and Persian as well as literature, history, religion, and the arts. As a young prince, he was also introduced to government and administration. He served as governor of Kefe and later Manisa, where he spent several years gaining valuable experience that prepared him for the throne. When his father, Sultan Selim I, died in 1520, Suleiman came to Istanbul and ascended the Ottoman throne on September 30, 1520, at the age of only 26.

The Ruler Europe Called “The Magnificent”

Suleiman’s reign holds a special place not only in Ottoman history but also in European history. Contemporary Europeans referred to him as “The Magnificent” and sometimes as “The Grand Turk.” In the Ottoman world, he eventually became known as Kanûnî, meaning “the Lawgiver.” Interestingly, the title “Kanûnî” was not necessarily the name most commonly used for him during his own lifetime; it became established more strongly in later centuries. Suleiman was not merely a military ruler. During his reign, law, government administration, education, art, architecture, and the charitable foundation system known as the waqf (vakıf) system all developed significantly. He was known for taking the administration of justice seriously and for intervening when officials abused their authority. His reign was marked by an effort to establish a strong and orderly system of government throughout the empire.

From Belgrade and Rhodes to Mohács and Baghdad

Suleiman’s reign was shaped by a series of major military campaigns. In 1521, Belgrade was conquered. The following year, in 1522, the Ottoman army besieged Rhodes, forcing the Knights of St. John to leave the island. One of the most decisive victories came in 1526 at the Battle of Mohács, which dramatically changed the political balance in Hungary and strengthened Ottoman influence in Central Europe. In 1529, the Ottoman army reached the gates of Vienna. In the east, Suleiman’s empire was involved in prolonged conflicts with the Safavid Empire. During his reign, Ottoman control expanded into Iraq, including Baghdad, while Ottoman influence in eastern Anatolia and parts of the Iranian frontier increased. The empire also strengthened its position around Yemen and Basra, helping it compete for important commercial routes leading toward the Indian Ocean. The Ottoman Empire under Suleiman became a vast empire stretching across parts of Europe, Asia, North Africa, and the Mediterranean. At sea, the empire’s power also reached new heights. Great Ottoman naval commanders such as Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha played a crucial role in establishing Ottoman dominance in the Mediterranean.

Suleiman and Hürrem Sultan: A Remarkable Love Story

One of the most fascinating aspects of Suleiman’s personal life was his relationship with Hürrem Sultan. The identity and early life of Hürrem Sultan have been the subject of historical discussion. she was probably from the region around Rohatyn (Rogatin), in present-day Ukraine, and was possibly the daughter of a Catholic priest. She was captured during a Crimean raid while she was still young and was eventually brought into the Ottoman palace. Her original name is often given as Alexandra Lisowska, although historical sources do not provide absolute certainty on every detail of her early life. At the Ottoman palace, she became known as Hürrem or Hürremşah. The word Hürrem means cheerful, joyful, or pleasant. There is no reliable historical evidence proving that one specific person gave her this name. It is generally understood that the name was given to her within the palace environment. Hürrem eventually became one of the most influential women in Suleiman’s life. She was the mother of Şehzade Mehmed (Şehzade = The son of an Ottoman sultan, particularly a male member of the dynasty who was educated and trained for the possibility of ascending to the throne.), Mihrimah Sultan, Şehzade Abdullah, Sultan Selim II, Şehzade Bayezid, and Şehzade Cihangir. Her position also created a serious rivalry with Mahidevran Sultan, the mother of Şehzade Mustafa. Suleiman’s feelings for Hürrem are particularly visible through the poems and letters he wrote to her. Suleiman himself was a poet and wrote under the pen name Muhibbî. His poems reveal a deeply emotional side of the powerful sultan. In them, he expressed his love, longing, affection, and devotion to Hürrem. Hürrem Sultan died in Istanbul on April 15, 1558. She was buried in her own mausoleum beside the Süleymaniye Mosque. Her tomb was built by the great Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan.

 Mimar Sinan and the Istanbul of Suleiman

Perhaps one of the most enduring legacies of Suleiman’s reign can be found not on the battlefield, but in the architecture of Istanbul. The greatest architect of the Ottoman classical period was undoubtedly Mimar Sinan. Sinan’s relationship with Suleiman was much more than that of a ruler and an architect. Suleiman gave Sinan the opportunity to create monumental works that reflected the power, sophistication, and cultural confidence of the Ottoman Empire.

Among Sinan’s most important works during Suleiman’s reign were:

* Şehzade Mosque

* Süleymaniye Mosque and Complex

* Mihrimah Sultan Mosque in Üsküdar

* Kırkçeşme Waterworks

* Büyükçekmece Bridge

* Numerous mosques, schools, bridges, baths, water systems, and other public buildings

It is important to clarify one common misconception: Mimar Sinan did not invent modern concrete or cement.

His greatness lies in his extraordinary ability to combine existing construction materials, structural techniques, domes, arches, water engineering, and spatial design at an exceptional level. His architectural achievements pushed Ottoman architecture to one of its highest points.

The Süleymaniye Mosque: Suleiman’s Signature in Istanbul

Construction of the Süleymaniye Mosque and Complex began in 1550 and was completed in 1557. The complex was far more than a mosque. It included religious schools, a hospital, an almshouse, a hadith school, and other social and educational institutions. It functioned as a major center of education, religion, social assistance, and public life. Today, the Süleymaniye Complex remains one of the defining monuments of Istanbul’s Ottoman skyline.

When we look at Süleymaniye today, we can see three remarkable figures connected to the same story: Suleiman the Magnificent, Hürrem Sultan, and Mimar Sinan. Suleiman’s own tomb is also located here.

The Personality of Suleiman

Suleiman cannot easily be described with a single word. Historical sources portray him as a ruler who valued education, poetry, art, law, discipline, and good administration. He was also interested in poetry, hunting, and craftsmanship. He wrote poetry throughout his life under the name Muhibbî. His poetry reveals a much more emotional and sensitive side than the image of the powerful conqueror might suggest. As for his physical appearance, Ottoman miniatures and accounts by contemporary Western observers provide some clues. He was often described as tall, strong, dignified, and imposing. However, we do not have reliable modern measurements of his exact height or weight, and artistic representations of rulers were often idealized. Therefore, descriptions of his physical appearance should be treated with some caution.

His Final Campaign and Death

Suleiman’s final military campaign took place in 1566, when he marched toward Szigetvár (Sigetvar). He was 71 years old and his health had significantly deteriorated. Despite his condition, he insisted on remaining with his army. Suleiman died during the siege on the night of September 6–7, 1566. One of the most remarkable details surrounding his death is that it was kept secret from the Ottoman army. His commanders feared that news of the sultan’s death would destroy the army’s morale. The fortress of Szigetvár was conquered shortly after his death, but Suleiman never witnessed the victory. His body was preserved and secretly transported back toward Istanbul with the Ottoman army. After arriving in Istanbul, a funeral prayer was performed and Suleiman was buried in his mausoleum beside the Süleymaniye Mosque.

What Happened to Suleiman’s Heart?

There is a fascinating and controversial story concerning Suleiman’s heart and internal organs. According to a widespread tradition, his heart and some of his internal organs were buried near Szigetvár, at the place where he died. However, this should not be presented as an established historical fact. Therefore, it would be historically inaccurate to state with certainty:

“Suleiman’s heart is buried in Hungary.” What we can state with certainty is that Suleiman’s body was brought back to Istanbul and buried in his mausoleum within the Süleymaniye Complex. His mausoleum was constructed by Mimar Sinan shortly after his death. The octagonal tomb is considered one of the outstanding examples of classical Ottoman architecture.

The Legacy of a Great Sultan

Suleiman’s 46-year reign is widely regarded as one of the most powerful and influential periods in Ottoman history. Under his rule, the Ottoman Empire reached from the heart of Europe to North Africa, from Iraq and the eastern Mediterranean to the Arabian Peninsula and the Red Sea. Yet Suleiman’s greatest legacy cannot be measured only by the territories he conquered. His era produced magnificent examples of architecture, education, law, literature, art, urban development, and charitable foundations. Today, Istanbul still preserves countless monuments from his reign, including the Süleymaniye Mosque, the Şehzade Complex, the Haseki Complex, Hürrem Sultan’s charitable institutions, bridges, water systems, and numerous other Ottoman works. Hürrem Sultan herself commissioned important charitable buildings, including the Haseki Complex, which included a mosque, school, soup kitchen, and hospital. Suleiman therefore left behind more than a growing empire. As a ruler, he expanded the borders of the Ottoman state. As a statesman, he strengthened its laws and institutions. As a poet, he expressed his deepest emotions through verse. And as a patron of art and architecture, he helped create an Istanbul whose monuments still define the city today. Perhaps that is the best way to understand Suleiman the Magnificent. He was not simply a conqueror. He was the ruler of an empire at the height of its political power—and one of the central figures of the Ottoman age that shaped Istanbul and much of the world around it.

The person you are referring to is Constantine I, also known as Constantine the Great, one of the most important emperors in the history of Rome and one of the key figures in the history of Istanbul. Constantine was born around 272 or 273 AD in Naissus, in the Balkans, near present-day Niš in Serbia. His father was Constantius Chlorus, and his mother was Helena, who later became an important figure in Christian history. Constantine became emperor in 306 AD and, after a series of civil wars, became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire in 324 AD. Two developments during his reign would have an enormous impact on world history: his transformation of Christianity’s position within the Roman Empire and his transformation of Byzantium into a new imperial capital.

From Byzantium to the New Rome

Constantine did not build Istanbul from nothing. Long before his reign, an ancient Greek settlement known as Byzantion (Byzantium) had existed on the site of modern Istanbul. After defeating his rivals and becoming the sole emperor, Constantine began transforming Byzantium on a massive scale. He recognized the city’s extraordinary strategic position. It stood at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, controlled the Bosphorus, and connected the Black Sea with the Mediterranean world. In 330 AD, Constantine officially inaugurated the newly rebuilt city as a major imperial capital. The city became known as Constantinople, meaning “the City of Constantine.” It was also associated with the idea of “Nova Roma,” or “New Rome,” because Constantine intended it to serve as a new center of the Roman Empire. It is important, however, not to say that the city was renamed from Nova Roma to Constantinople only after Constantine’s death. The name Constantinople was already being used during Constantine’s lifetime. “New Rome” described the city’s role as a new Roman imperial center rather than simply being an earlier official name that was later replaced.

How Did Constantine Transform Istanbul?

Constantine’s achievement was much more than changing the name of an old city. He transformed the relatively small and ancient city of Byzantium into a magnificent imperial capital modeled in many ways on Rome. The city was expanded, new defensive walls were constructed, and enormous public buildings, ceremonial avenues, squares, palaces, churches, and monuments were built. Constantine wanted the city to possess the grandeur expected of the capital of a vast empire.

Forums and Monumental Buildings

One of the most important public spaces created during his reign was the Forum of Constantine. At its center stood a monumental marble column topped by a statue of Constantine. The remains of this column survive today and are known as Çemberlitaş. Constantine also greatly expanded the Hippodrome, which became one of the most important centers of public life in Constantinople. The Hippodrome was much more than a place for chariot races. It was a place where the emperor appeared before the people, major ceremonies were held, and political and social life unfolded. Constantine also brought monuments, statues, and architectural elements from different parts of the Roman world to decorate his new capital.

Constantine and Christianity

Constantine is one of the most important figures in the history of Christianity. Before his reign, Christians in the Roman Empire had experienced periods of severe persecution. One of the most serious periods of persecution occurred under Emperor Diocletian. Constantine dramatically changed this situation.

The Edict of Milan – 313 AD

In 313 AD, Constantine and Licinius issued what became known as the Edict of Milan. The edict allowed Christians to practice their faith openly and helped end official persecution of Christianity. Property that had previously been confiscated from Christian communities was also to be returned. This was a major turning point in Christian history. However, there is an important distinction: Constantine did not make Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire later, particularly under Emperor Theodosius I in the late fourth century. Constantine’s importance lies instead in the fact that he transformed Christianity from a persecuted religion into one that could openly develop under imperial protection.

 The Council of Nicaea – 325 AD

Another major achievement of Constantine was the First Council of Nicaea, held in 325 AD. The council brought together bishops from different parts of the Roman Empire to address serious theological disputes within Christianity, particularly the controversy surrounding Arianism. Constantine played an important role in bringing the bishops together because he wanted to restore religious unity within the empire. The council produced the foundation of what would become known as the Nicene Creed, one of the most important statements of Christian belief. For this reason, Constantine’s importance to Christianity goes far beyond simply becoming a Christian. He used imperial authority to support the organization of the Church and to promote unity within the Christian world.

Constantine’s Christian Legacy in Constantinople

Constantine wanted his new capital to have not only a Roman identity but also an increasingly important Christian identity. During his reign, important churches were built in the city, including Hagia Irene (Aya İrini) and the Church of the Holy Apostles. The Church of the Holy Apostles became particularly significant because Constantine himself was eventually buried there. It is important to clarify that the magnificent Hagia Sophia seen in Istanbul today was not built by Constantine. The present structure was built centuries later under Emperor Justinian I, in the sixth century. Nevertheless, the development of Constantinople as a Christian imperial capital began during Constantine’s reign and created the foundation upon which later emperors, including Justinian, would build.

Helena, Constantine’s Mother

Constantine’s mother, Helena, also holds an important place in Christian history. She is traditionally associated with journeys to the Holy Land and with the development of important Christian sites in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. During Constantine’s reign, major Christian buildings such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem were constructed or significantly developed. Helena later became a revered figure in Christianity and is known as Saint Helena.

The Death of Constantine

Toward the end of his life, Constantine was preparing for a military campaign against the Persian Empire. However, he became seriously ill and died on May 22, 337 AD, near Nicomedia, not far from Constantinople. He was approximately 64 or 65 years old. One of the most significant details about his death is that Constantine was baptized as a Christian shortly before his death. His body was brought to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, the church he had commissioned. In this way, the emperor who had transformed the city into a new imperial capital was buried in the city that would carry his name for centuries.

Constantine’s Greatest Legacy in Istanbul

Perhaps the most important thing to understand about Constantine is this: Constantine did not simply rebuild Istanbul; he changed the role of the city in world history. Before Constantine, Byzantium was an ancient and strategically important settlement. After Constantine, it became one of the most important cities in the world.

It became:

* The imperial capital of the Roman Empire.

* A strategic center between Europe and Asia.

* One of the most important cities of the Christian world.

* A magnificent metropolis filled with palaces, churches, forums, monuments, and public buildings.

* The center of what would later be known as the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire for almost a thousand years.

* The historical and architectural foundation upon which the later Ottoman Istanbul would be built.

For this reason, Constantine’s transformation of Byzantium in the fourth century was one of the decisive moments in the history of Istanbul. The city he transformed would survive the fall of the Western Roman Empire, become the heart of the Eastern Roman Empire, and eventually become the capital of the Ottoman Empire after the Ottoman conquest of 1453. Constantine therefore stands at one of the most important crossroads in Istanbul’s history: the moment when an ancient city on the Bosphorus was transformed into a world capital.

Latin Invasion

• ​I. Baudouin, 1204-5
• ​Henri, 1205-6
• ​Pierre de Courtenoi, 1216-19
• ​Robert, 1219-28
• ​II. Baudouin, 1228-61

Byzantine Emperors of Nicaea

• ​I. Theodoros Laskaris, 1204-22
• ​IV. İoannis Vatatzes, 1222-54
• ​II. Theodoros Laskaris, 1254-8
• ​IV. İoannis Laskaris, 1258-61 (Co-emperor), 1258-61
• ​VIII. Mihail Paleologos (Co-emperor), 1258-61

After the Liberation of Constantinople from the Latins

• ​VIII. Mihail Paleologos, 1261-82
• ​II. Andronikos Paleologos, 1282-1328
• ​IX. Mihail Paleologos (Co-emperor), 1295-1320
• ​III. Andronikos Paleologos, 1328-41
• ​V. İoannis Paleologos, 1328-41
• ​VI. İoannis Kantakuzinos (Co-emperor), 1342-54
• ​IV. Andronikos Paleologos, 1376-9
• ​V. İoannis Paleologos ( For the second time), 1379-91
• ​VII. İoannis Paleologos, 1391-1425
• ​VIII. İoannis Paleologos, 1425-48
• ​XI. Konstantinos Paleologos Dragas, 1449-53